Evidence of Catastrophic Glacier Melt in… New York City?

Guest “It doesn’t get any dumber than this” by David Middleton

Hat tip to Mrs. Middleton…

Climate Ready: Evidence in NYC shows rapid glacier melt is leading to real-world effects

By Dani Beckstrom WABC
Friday, March 28, 2025

NEW YORK CITY (WABC) — It’s not just in the movies; the ice on our planet is melting faster than we ever thought possible.

This melting is not just taking place at the North and South Poles.

“Everything from the relatively small glaciers that we’re use to looking iconically at, to the Alps, the Rockies, Alaska,” Robin Bell, geophysicist and glaciologist, said.

[…]

“There’s a tide gauge down at the Staten Island Ferry Terminal,” said Bell. “And sea levels have just been going up.”

[…]

New York City’s history with glaciers goes much further back.

“About 20,000 years ago, this whole area was under ice,” Steven Jaret, research associate at the American Museum of Natural History, said. “It would have been here about 1,000 to 2,000 feet thick.”

In parts of New York State, more than a mile and a half of ice covered what is now ground level, which is more than four times the height of one World Trade Center.

[…]

Eyewitless News ABC 7

The article goes on to describe all of the breathtaking evidence of catastrophic glacier melting in and around New York City: Glacial erratics, glacial striations, more glacial erratics… Oddly enough they failed to mention that Long Island is basically a terminal moraine. They even included a cute video, with clips from the Ice Age cartoons.

Evidence of Late Pleistocene “rapid glacier melt” in modern-day New York City “is leading to real-world effects” about as much as the presence of Ordovician Period marine fossils on Mount Everest leads to evidence of Noah’s Flood.

Regarding sea level rise… When this much ice melted…

Figure 1. Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene deglaciation. (Illinois State Museum)

Sea level rose at a rapid rate of about 11 mm/yr over a period of about 10,000 years…

Figure 2. Global seal level rise during Holocene Transgression. Meltwater Pulse 1A (MWP 1A) occurred ~14.6 kya. Note the error bar is ±12 meters. Older is toward the right.
(Siddall et al., 2003)

Zooming in on the past 7,000 years (older is toward the left), we can see that the Late Pleistocene rapid sea level rise peaked between 6,000 and 5,000 years ago during the Holocene Climatic Optimum.

Figure 3. Global last 7,000 years, error bars omitted (Brock et al, 2008 after Sidall et al., 2003). Older is toward the left. Jevrejeva et al., 2014 (J14) is overlaid in red at the same scale. Ljungqvist, 2010 nothern hemisphere climate reconstruction is also overlaid. The relatively large swings in SLR over the past 4,000 years are clearly consistent with the millennial scale Holocene climate cycle.

About 1,000 years ago as the climate transitioned from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, sea level fell. by as much as 6 meters, before beginning to slowly rise again in the mid-1800’s.

Figure 4. Jevrejeva et al., 2014 (J14, red) and Church & White, 2011 (CW11, green).

Here’s a plot of CW11 shifted to the same datum as J14:

Figure 5. J14 vs CW11. 310 mm is less than the length of an Estwing rock pick. The green curve is CW11’s pentadal (5-yr) average. The red curve is J14’s pentadal average. The CW11 y-axis is shifted up 100 mm to tie J14.

About 13 inches of sea level rise over a 150 year period.

This brings us back to New York City…

“There’s a tide gauge down at the Staten Island Ferry Terminal,” said Bell. “And sea levels have just been going up.”

There is? Better let NOAA know about it…

Let’s take a peak at the actual tide gauges:

Figure 6. Montauk 3.60 mm/yr
The relative sea level trend is 2.94 millimeters/year with a 95% confidence interval of +/- 0.09 mm/yr based on monthly mean sea level data from1856 to 2024 which is equivalent to a change of 0.96 feet in 100 years.

The Battery 2.94 mm/yr

The Battery has the longest record length at nearly 170 years…. A steady rate of 2.94 ±0.09 mm/yr, starting 47 years prior to this climatic catastrophe:

Of course, that 2.94 ±0.09 mm/yr is a combination of the water moving up and the land moving down.

NASA-Led Study Pinpoints Areas of New York City Sinking, Rising

Sept. 27, 2023

Scientists using space-based radar found that land in New York City is sinking at varying rates from human and natural factors. A few spots are rising.

Parts of the New York City metropolitan area are sinking and rising at different rates due to factors ranging from land-use practices to long-lost glaciers, scientists have found. While the elevation changes seem small – fractions of inches per year – they can enhance or diminish local flood risk linked to sea level rise.

The new study was published Wednesday in Science Advances by a team of researchers from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California and Rutgers University in New Jersey.

[…]

The scientists found that on average the metropolitan area subsided by about 0.06 inches (1.6 millimeters) per year – about the same amount that a toenail grows in a month.

[…]

NASA JPL

So, we can knock 1.6 mm/yr off of the 2.94 mm/yr, reducing the actual rise in sea level elevation to 1.34 mm/yr.

Figure 9. “Mapping vertical land motion across the New York City area, researchers found the land sinking (indicated in blue) by about 0.06 inches (1.6 millimeters) per year on average. They also detected modest uplift (shown in red) in Queens and Brooklyn. White dotted lines indicate county/borough borders.
 Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Rutgers University” NASA JPL

In the Science Advances paper, the “scientists” claimed that sea level rise at The Battery is accelerating.

During the 20th century, relative sea level at the Battery tide gauge in Manhattan, New York City increased at a rate of about 3.1 mm/year. From 2000 to 2022, that rate has increased to 4.4 mm/year. About 1.5 ± 0.2 mm/year of this rate has been attributed to subsidence driven by glacial isostatic adjustment [GIA; (13)]

Buzzanga et al., 2023

Even if we accept the acceleration claim, 4.4 – 1.5 still takes us back to 2.9 mm/yr… The same rate it’s been since before the Confederacy fired on Fort Sumter.

However, a quick look at NOAA’s “Variations of 50-Year Relative Sea Level Trends” clearly demonstrates that the apparent recent acceleration is simply due to the well-documented, roughly 60-yr cycle (quasi-periodic fluctuation for the math nerds) in the rate of sea level rise.

This cycle is most likely related to the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (Gervais, 2016, NCAR) and not to fossil fuel consumption.

Figure 11. Book ‘en Danno – AMO and Battery

Yes, I know… Correlation does not equal causation. However, without correlation, it’s rather difficult to move on to causation.

Then there’s Bergen Point, with the shortest record length, entirely within the current up-swing of the ~60-yr cycle.

I’m surprised they didn’t cite Bergen Point as evidence of accelerated sea level rise [/Sarc off]

So… Yes, there’s lots of evidence that massive sheets of ice once covered New York City and much of the Northern Hemisphere… But they melted… A long time ago… And that’s a good thing. However, those ice sheets will almost certainly return at some point in the geologically near future. And that will be a very bad thing and far more catastrophic than 3 mm/yr of sea level rise:

As if the Eyewitless News ABC 7 story wasn’t dumb enough…

March 31, 2025

Big Banks Quietly Prepare for Catastrophic Warming

Morgan Stanley, JPMorgan and an international banking group have quietly concluded that climate change will likely exceed the Paris Agreement’s 2 degree C goal and are examining how to maintain profits

By Corbin Hiar & E&E News

CLIMATEWIRE | Top Wall Street institutions are preparing for a severe future of global warming that blows past the temperature limits agreed to by more than 190 nations a decade ago, industry documents show.

The big banks’ acknowledgment that the world is likely to fail at preventing warming of more than 2 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels is spelled out in obscure reports for clients, investors and trade association members.

Most were published after the reelection of President Donald Trump, who is seeking to repeal federal policies that support clean energy while turbocharging the production of oil, gas and coal — the main sources of global warming.

[…]

Scientific American

Figure 14. Life Expectancy: Our World in Data, Energy Consumption: Bjorn Lomborg, 2020 and CO2
(Wood for Trees, MacFarling Meure et al., 2006)

Cue “correlation is not causation”… Allow myself to repeat myself… From 1800 to 1900, per capita energy consumption, primarily from biomass, remained relatively flat; as did the average life expectancy. From 1900 to 1978, per capita energy consumption roughly tripled with the rapid growth in fossil fuel production (coal, oil & gas). This was accompanied by a doubling of average life expectancy. While I can’t say that fossil fuels caused the increase in life expectancy, I can unequivocally state that everything that enabled the increase in life expectancy wouldn’t have existed or happened without fossil fuels, particularly petroleum.

Our modern society would not exist without fossil fuels and it would collapse in a heartbeat if fossil fuels were made unavailable and/or unaffordable. One of the coolest things about being a petroleum geologist, is that I can give thanks for fossil fuels and say “you’re welcome” in the same sentence.

References

Brock, J.C.,  M. Palaseanu-Lovejoy, C.W. Wright, & A. Nayegandhi. (2008). “Patch-reef morphology as a proxy for Holocene sea-level variability, Northern Florida Keys, USA”. Coral Reefs. 27. 555-568. 10.1007/s00338-008-0370-y. 

Buzzanga, Brett et al. ,Localized uplift, widespread subsidence, and implications for sea level rise in the New York City metropolitan area. Sci. Adv. 9, eadi8259(2023).DOI:10.1126/sciadv.adi 8259

Church, J.A., White, N.J., 2011. “Sea-level rise from the late 19th to the early 21st Century”. Surv. Geophys. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10712-011-9119-1.

Gervais, François. Anthropogenic CO2 warming challenged by 60-yearcycle. Earth-Science Reviews. Volume 155, 2016, Pages 129-135, ISSN 0012-8252,

Jevrejeva, S. , J.C. Moore, A. Grinsted, A.P. Matthews, G. Spada. 2014.  “Trends and acceleration in global and regional sea levels since 1807”.  Global and Planetary Change. %vol 113, 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2013.12.004 https://www.psmsl.org/products/reconstructions/jevrejevaetal2014.php

Lomborg, Bjorn . Welfare in the 21st century: Increasing development, reducing inequality, the impact of climate change, and the cost of climate policies. Technological Forecasting and Social Change. Volume 156, 2020, 119981, ISSN 0040-1625, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.119981.

Ljungqvist, F.C. 2010. “A new reconstruction of temperature variability in the extra-tropical Northern Hemisphere during the last two millennia”. Geografiska Annaler: Physical Geography, Vol. 92 A(3), pp. 339-351, September 2010. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-459.2010.00399.x

MacFarling Meure, C., D. Etheridge, C. Trudinger, P. Steele, R. Langenfelds, T. van Ommen, A. Smith, and J. Elkins (2006), Law Dome CO2, CH4 and N2O ice core records extended to 2000 years BP, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L14810, doi:10.1029/2006GL026152.

Siddall M, Rohling EJ, Almogi-Labin A, Hemleben C, Meischner D, Scmelzer I, Smeed DA (2003). “Sea-level fluctuations during the last glacial cycle”. Nature 423:853–858

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April 8, 2025 2:20 pm

the ice on our planet is melting faster than we ever thought possible

It’s melting so fast that in about 1,500 years sea level will reach the peak level of the previous interglacial (warm) period 125,000 years ago, when it was 4 to 6 meters higher. I, for one, am frightened out of my mind by the astonishing(ly slow) pace of glacier melt and sea level rise. 0.0035 meters per year of sea level rise is an existential threat. Someday. Like in thousands of years, but it’s a big deal and we must do something about it. Now!

-Global Mean Sea Level 3.5 ± 0.4 mm/yr, Sea Level Research Group at University of Colorado

Sea Level Rise, After the Ice Melted and Today (by Vivien Gornitz, NASA GISS)

SxyxS
Reply to  stinkerp
April 8, 2025 4:06 pm

The funniest thing is:
New York was covered with 1.5 miles of ice.
Then the melt started.
And within the next 6000 years Sea levels went up 80 meters.

During the last 60 years there should have been 0.8 m as average.
But when we take a look at photos of coastlines or watch 60ies beach movies everything looks the same now.

The sea level rise is absolutely irrelevant by any metric and significantly lower as it was 10000 years ago.
Yet they dare to say : “Ice is melting faster than we ever thought”
No!
It melts 90% slower than it did for thousands of years.
And 98 % slower than they themselves predicted :
According to Hansen lower Manhattan drowned in 2018 and so did the Maledives.

If there was any relevant melt many Islands would have been gone by now
and the UN would terrorize us all, and especially school children with a ” drowned island historymonth”,
front beach properties would be sold for pennies on a dollar.
The few remaining beach resorts would be overcrowded.

And what would never ever happen is that China, Emirates etc are building artificial islands in the sea.
Even amateurish man made islands like Santa Cruz del Islote are still there and still one foot above sea level as they’ve always been.

Sea level rise and melting ice are the same non -issue as co2.
So irrelevant that noone would ever talk about it if they wouldn’t be bombarding us permanently with fear propaganda.
They are exactly the same thing as Iraq’s WMD’s.
The only place they exist is inside Colin Powells testtube.
And the testtube was just the replacement for the yellow cake lie
just as global warming is for the ice age – to achieve a specific goal.

Reply to  stinkerp
April 8, 2025 4:13 pm

4-6m higher was only 5000 years ago, 125,000 years ago it was say 120m+ higher

Leon de Boer
Reply to  Duker
April 8, 2025 4:56 pm

Impossible to 120m higher than present where did you get that number from ?

It’s a straight physics calculation and if you melt all the ice on Earth 65m is the highest sea level from present. Even the IPCC can get that one right because it isn’t climate science but physics and you can see the breakdown
https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glaciers-and-climate/estimating-glacier-contribution-to-sea-level-rise/

Glaciers who cares, Greenland ice sheet 7m and Antarctica 58m

Reply to  David Middleton
April 9, 2025 12:35 pm

Eggs zackley! Numbers, schmumbers. . . Science, schmience. . . Who cares about precise measurement anyway, when you can use gruesome imagery as a first choice, and still lure tens of millions of acolytes into your Amen Corner?

Bryan A
Reply to  Leon de Boer
April 8, 2025 7:46 pm

So long as you live above 230′ above MSL you will ALWAYS be OK. At 240′ you needn’t be concerned with most storm surges either

Curious George
Reply to  Duker
April 8, 2025 6:01 pm

Not higher. Lower. Look up “continental shelf”.

Reply to  Duker
April 9, 2025 4:19 am

125,000 years ago it was say 120m+ higher

I am genuinely baffled as to why you would want people to think you are an idiot.

The “120 metres” is how much lower sea level was at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) around 20,000 years ago.

See Figure 2 in the ATL article.

.

For “dry facts” it is reasonable to start with looking at what Wikipedia has to say about a question, in this case :
“What was the highest sea level during the Eemian interglacial, ~130-115kya ?”

In most cases additional research / follow-up of references will be required … but not in this instance.

URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Interglacial#Sea_level

Start of that section :

Sea level at peak was probably 6 to 9 metres (20 to 30 feet) higher than today, …

You managed to take “post in haste, repent at leisure” — which I have frequently been guilty of myself in the past, and will no doubt be guilty of many times in the future as well — to a whole new “level” …

don k
Reply to  Mark BLR
April 9, 2025 8:15 am

Yep, 6 to 9 meters maximum during the Eemian interglacial would be the guess of the serious sea level folk. That’s before “clarifying” by the IPCC, the media, etc. Even that is a bit hazy as it assumes no tectonic up or down motion of the measurement site(s) in intervening 120,000 years,

Rud Istvan
April 8, 2025 2:24 pm

Poor TV reporter Dani. Like most, reads a script without knowing what she is talking about.
Glaciers melting, the horror. Sea level rise accelerating, the horror. Except neither is true.
USNPS had signage for many years at the main Glacier National Park visitor center saying all the Park glaciers would be gone by 2020. Winter 2020, while the Park was closed, all that signage disappeared because its glaciers were still there. And still are.

Climate Alarmists appear out of alarms. They now just recycle stuff already multiple times disproven. Or make nonsense assertions like ‘The oceans are boiling.’

Reply to  Rud Istvan
April 8, 2025 4:20 pm

“They now just recycle stuff already multiple times disproven.”

Yes, Climate Alarmists are getting really boring. They can’t come up with anything new, and all their old stuff has been debunked.

Reply to  Rud Istvan
April 8, 2025 7:34 pm

Big banks like Morgan Stanley and JPMorgan are losing their assets over DEI, ESG, and CAGW. Ditto Vanguard and Blackrock. The days of culture warfare substituting for financial competence are over. Read the memo…

Bob B.
Reply to  OR For
April 9, 2025 4:13 am

Morgan Stanley, JPMorgan and an international banking group have quietly concluded that climate change will likely exceed the Paris Agreement’s 2 degree C goal and are examining how to maintain profits

Easy, just invest in air conditioning.

April 8, 2025 2:46 pm

The area around New York City was profoundly shaped by Pleistocene glaciations — a series of ice advances and retreats over the last ~2.6 million years. Specifically, the most recent major event was the Wisconsin Glaciation, which ended about 12,000 years ago. But geologists have evidence that at least six or seven glacial cycles affected this region.

So, in her ignorance, she’s correct.

April 8, 2025 3:11 pm

Several years ago, one of my sons was playing in a week-long baseball tournament in Cooperstown, NY, at the south end of Lake Otsego in the finger lakes region of central New York. During some downtime, I drove around the region showing my older son all of the effects of real global warming, like the u-shaped valleys that were no longer filled with glaciers but left the finger lakes behind when they melted, providing nice farmland and beautiful scenery for us knuckledragging skeptics to enjoy. My kids are now out of college and still non-believers.

Editor
Reply to  Phil R
April 8, 2025 3:45 pm

Phil ==> Cooperstown is at the south end of Lake Otsego, but neither the town or the lake are in the Fingerlakes Region.

Cooperstown is in the Mohawk Valley Region of New York, in Ostego County.

Lovely place, especially if you like Baseball.

Reply to  Kip Hansen
April 8, 2025 4:14 pm

Kip, thanks for the clarification. My mother grew up in northern Pennsylvania right on the NY state border and we used to go up there almost every summer for vacation. would go up to Seneca Lake and watkins Glen a lot. Central NY is a beautiful area and I just assumed Otsego was one of the finger lakes without really looking.

Denis
Reply to  Phil R
April 9, 2025 4:37 am

Otsego may well be a glacial lake formed at the same time as the larger lakes to its west called “Finger lakes.” It is not called a finger lake because of a decision by a cartographer long ago. It is also much smaller than the lakes we call finger.

Reply to  Denis
April 9, 2025 9:09 am

Denis, thanks to you and Kip for the geography lesson and corrections. My main point was that NY state (or most of it) was covered by continental glaciers and there are a ton of glacial erosional and depositional features in central NY. While I was up there, I took advantage of it to show my son firsthand that life in general benefits when the glaciers go away.

Reply to  David Middleton
April 9, 2025 2:53 am

Big Reds fan from way back. Johnny Bench was my hero in high school. Went to the Hall of Fame when in Cooperstown. Pete Rose is in, sorta. There’s a Pete Rose display in the museum section with his jersey and stuff even though he doesn’t have a plaque in the actual Hall.

Reply to  David Middleton
April 9, 2025 6:52 am

La Grand Orange played for Tigers a couple years after Montreal. I think he was hitting coach too.

Reply to  David Middleton
April 9, 2025 9:05 am

I live in SE Virginia where we have the AAA Tidewater Tides. Used to be the farm team for the Mets. They switched parks, switched leagues and are now the farm team of the Orioles, which is fine. My younger son is an O’s fan because of that, but my older son is a Yankee’s fan (and he likes soccer). To this day, I’m trying to figure out where I went wrong.

April 8, 2025 3:12 pm

P.S., Used to have an Estwing rock hammer. Have no idea whatever happened to it.

Reply to  David Middleton
April 8, 2025 4:13 pm

You may have once been a field geologist … if you get the joke above about using an Estwing rock hammer to demonstrate the scale.

Alastair Brickell
Reply to  David Middleton
April 9, 2025 1:38 pm

Yes, my still wife complains that the only time she was ever in one of my photos was to be a scale next to some boring rock or another!

Reply to  Phil R
April 8, 2025 10:15 pm

Shawshank?

Editor
April 8, 2025 3:52 pm

Dave ==> Terrific – saved me the effort — and yes, as far as I could find, no Tide Gauge to sea level gauge a the Staten Island Ferry Terminal.

Yes, relative sea level goes up – at about 9 inches per century with 1-2 inches of that being the land of Manhattan Island moving down.

Journalists don’t seem to be able or willing to check any facts these days.

No blame on the more prompter readers — Dani.

April 8, 2025 4:17 pm

Ref. Figure 1 in the article, we need to annex Canada and level the Laurentian Mts before they can launch another round of catastrophic glaciation!

/s

Denis
Reply to  Frank from NoVA
April 9, 2025 4:40 am

Now now Frank. The last glaciation pushed a great deal of excellent Canadian dirt over to the US side. Where I come from (Western NYS) there are dozens and in places hundreds of feet of excellent soil. Thank you Canada.

KevinM
April 8, 2025 4:17 pm

faster than we ever thought possible.
Haven’t we sorta been waiting for 40 years?

Rud Istvan
April 8, 2025 4:25 pm

Fun aside. I still have my old, warn Eastwing rock pick, plus my 5# Eastwind crack hammer, plus its associated chisels, my hand built fine rock screen (used to get magnificent rubies and sapphires out of the NC Cowee Valley alluvial deposits), and my gold pan (used to get old gold at Dahlonegha, Georgia). All in my very used rock hound small backpack. Will be going to my Colorado grandkids soon.

Reply to  Rud Istvan
April 8, 2025 4:51 pm

I bought a gold pan in Hill City, SD back in the mid-1970s. washed a few flakes out of some dirt, and that was the limit of my gold mining days. Lost the gold pan and the small vial with the few flakes of gold that I panned.

Jeff Alberts
Reply to  Rud Istvan
April 8, 2025 5:26 pm

Is it Eastwing, Eastwind, or Estwing?

Jeff Alberts
Reply to  David Middleton
April 12, 2025 8:49 pm

I asked because Rud used three different names.

John Hultquist
Reply to  David Middleton
April 8, 2025 7:10 pm

Rock folks will get a kick out of Nick Zintner’s missing rock hammer:
Geology Video Blooper – Columnar Basalt

Reply to  Rud Istvan
April 8, 2025 7:13 pm

Oh I have had rock hammers. My first was purchased as a Freshman geology student in 1966 but it was not the last. Estwings and various 3 to 5# crack hammers (those for the Precambrian Shield projects). Some lost, some misplaced, some loaned and not returned, some just disappeared. I did donate one to the airport security in Lima Peru because I “forgot” it was in my carry-on backpack. More than a few pocket knives met the same fate.

Editor
April 8, 2025 7:15 pm

Aren’t they saying that the melting of the 1 1/2 miles of ice over NY was catastrophic? That if only the ice could have stayed there, NY would not be destroying the planet with emissions?

NB. “emissions” is their name for it. In my language they are CO2 emissions.

sherro01
April 8, 2025 7:57 pm

There is still widespread refusal to accept that the size of the ocean basins is changing and that this will affect apparent sea level changes seen on tide gauges.
We know that there is sea floor spreading, we have eyewitness accounts of new sea mounts appearing above the ocean surface, we know that many islands are growing higher above the ocean level, we have numerous records of undersea volcanism, etc. Given this, the expectation should be that basin size IS affecting measured sea levels as we speak. Sure, it is not so easy to measure or to devise proxy measurements, but it is simply wrong science to cancel culture it. Geoff S

Walter Sobchak
April 8, 2025 8:17 pm

“Long Island is basically a terminal moraine.”

And Eyewitness News ABC 7 is a bunch of terminal morons.

April 8, 2025 10:18 pm

I recently learned the Welsh for ‘carrot’. It is moron. All those ‘reporters at ABC (and most other outlets) are carrots.

1saveenergy
April 9, 2025 1:23 am

“There’s a tide gauge down at the Staten Island Ferry Terminal,” said Bell. “And sea levels have just been going up.

About 5ft twice a day … every day (:-))

April 9, 2025 9:49 am

I have a question about the caption in figure 2.
Does that mean that the number of seals rose or that seals got taller?
(Sorry. Couldn’t resist. 😎

Corrigenda
April 9, 2025 12:24 pm

Utter nonsense Get some real scientists involved before making comments like these.

No one EVER can forecast what will be the situation in 1500 years from now.

Reply to  Corrigenda
April 9, 2025 11:59 pm

The Yogi Berra Rule applies: “It’s hard to make predictions, especially about the future.”