Potential Climatic Variables Page

Compiled by WUWT regular “Just The Facts”

This list of Potential Climatic Variables was built with the help of a multitude of WUWT reader comments, beginning on this thread on January, 15th 2011, and growing on January 22nd, 2011, February 10th, 2011, February 28th, 2011, June 30th, 2011 and January 21st, 2012. Your help in continuing to build this list would be most appreciated. Please take a look through the list below and note in comments if you have any additions, suggestions or corrections.

Wikipedia Warning: The list relies heavily upon Wikipedia due to the fact that it is the only source that offers reasonably coherent content on such broad range of subjects. However, there are known issues with Wikipedia’s content, especially biases in their climate articles. As such, please take care to view any Wikipedia articles with a critical eye and check Wikipedia’s references to evaluate the credibility of their sources. Additionally, in comments, please provide your suggestions of articles from alternate sources that can be added to this list in order to help readers to easily verify the veracity of the Wikipedia articles within.

1. Earth’s Rotational Energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation

https://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/6h.html

results in day and night; causes the Coriolis Effect:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect

imparts Planetary Vorticity on the oceans;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorticity

and manifests as Ocean Gyres;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_gyre

the Antarctic Circumpolar Current;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conveyor_belt.svg

Arctic Ocean Circulation;

https://www.whoi.edu/what-we-do/understand/departments-centers-labs/po/research/arctic-ocean-and-climate/

can result in the formation of Polynya;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya

and causes the Equatorial Bulge:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_bulge

Earth’s Rotational Energy influences Atmospheric Circulation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation

including the Jet Stream;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_stream

Westerlies;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerlies

Tradewinds;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_wind

Geostrophic Wind;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostrophic_wind

Surface Currents;

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/welcome.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current

through Ekman Transport;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekman_transport

https://oceanmotion.org/html/background/ocean-in-motion.htm

Tropical Cyclones;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclone

possibly Tornadoes;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado

however, the NOAA Storm Prediction Center notes that scientists don’t think the Coriolis Effect is responsible for tornado rotation because anticyclonic tornadoes also occur:

https://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/

and Polar Vortices;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_vortex

https://wattsupwiththat.com/reference-pages/polar-vortex/

which “are caused when an area of low pressure sits at the rotation pole of a planet. This causes air to spiral down from higher in the atmosphere, like water going down a drain.”

https://www.universetoday.com/973/what-venus-and-saturn-have-in-common/

When a Polar Vortex splits or breaks down it can cause a Sudden Stratospheric Warming:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_stratospheric_warming

https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/36972/

Rossby Waves;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossby_wave

are a subset of Inertial Waves:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_waves

“Atmospheric Rossby Waves emerge due to shear in rotating fluids, so that the Coriolis force changes along the sheared coordinate. In planetary atmospheres, they are due to the variation in the Coriolis effect with latitude.” “Atmospheric Rossby waves are giant meanders in high-altitude winds that are a major influence on weather” and “are principally responsible for the Brewer-Dobson circulation”;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewer-Dobson_circulation

Atmospheric Rossby Waves “are not to be confused with Oceanic Rossby Waves, which move along the thermocline: that is, the boundary between the warm upper layer of the ocean and the cold deeper part of the ocean.” “Oceanic Rossby waves are thought to communicate climatic changes due to variability in forcing, due to both the wind and buoyancy. Both barotropic and baroclinic waves cause variations of the sea surface height, although the length of the waves made them difficult to detect until the advent of satellite altimetry. Baroclinic waves also generate significant displacements of the oceanic thermocline, often of tens of meters. Satellite observations have revealed the stately progression of Rossby waves across all the ocean basins, particularly at low- and mid-latitudes. These waves can take months or even years to cross a basin like the Pacific.”
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossby_wave

Earth’s Rotational Energy influences Plate Tectonics;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics

“By analyzing the minute changes in travel times and wave shapes for each doublet, the researchers concluded that the Earth’s inner core is rotating faster than its surface by about 0.3-0.5 degrees per year.”

https://www.livescience.com/9313-earth-core-rotates-faster-surface-study-confirms.html

The surface movement is called plate tectonics. It involves the shifting of about a dozen major plates and is what causes most earthquakes;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake

Volcanoes;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano

and Mountain Formation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_formation

which can create Mountain Jets;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_jet

and influence the creation of Atmospheric Waves:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_wave

Rotational Energy is the primary driver of Earth’s Dynamo;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamo_theory

which generates Earth’s Magnetic Field;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field

and is primarily responsible for the Earthly behaviors of the Magnetosphere;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetosphere

with certain secular variations in Earth’s magnetic field originating from ocean flow/circulation;

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1367-2630/11/6/063015

though Leif Svalgaard notes that these are minor variations, as the magnetic field originating from ocean flow/circulation “is 1000 times smaller than the main field generated in the core.”

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2011/06/30/earths-climate-system-is-ridiculously-complex-with-draft-link-tutorial/#comment-707971

Earth’s Rotation results in the Equatorial Anomaly, “characterized as the occurrence of a trough in the ionization concentration at the equator and crests at about 17° in magnetic latitude in each hemisphere, the equatorial anomaly has been well described as arising from the electrodynamics at the equator.”

Earth Core Changes appear “to be generated in the Earth’s core by a dynamo process, associated with the circulation of liquid metal in the core, driven by internal heat sources”. These core changes influence Earth’s Magnetic Field, including movement of the Geomagnetic Poles:

https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/wandering-geomagnetic-poles

Also of note, “Over millions of years, Earth’s rotation is significantly slowed by gravitational interactions with the Moon: see tidal acceleration.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_acceleration

“Tidal acceleration is an effect of the tidal forces between an orbiting natural satellite (e.g. the Moon), and the primary planet that it orbits (e.g. the Earth). The ‘acceleration’ is usually negative, as it causes a gradual slowing and recession of a satellite in a prograde orbit away from the primary, and a corresponding slowdown of the primary’s rotation. The process eventually leads to tidal locking of first the smaller, and later the larger body. The Earth-Moon system is the best studied case.”

“The presence of the moon (which has about 1/81 the mass of the Earth), is slowing Earth’s rotation and lengthening the day by about 2 ms every one hundred years.”

Lastly Length of Day (LOD);

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_length

“varies when any mass on or in the Earth moves, affecting the state of its angular momentum. Take weather in the atmosphere, for instance. The seasonal changes in the trade winds and monsoons have a well-known effect on the length-of-day over the course of the year. The IERS calculates the angular momentum of the whole atmosphere every six hours, allowing the signal of large-scale weather systems to be detected.”

“An analysis of time variations in the earth’s length of day (LOD) for 25 years (1973–1998) versus atmospheric circulation changes and lunar phase is presented. It is found that, on the average, there is a 27.3-day and 13.6-day period oscillation in global zonal wind speed, atmospheric geopotential height, and LOD following alternating changes in lunar phase.”

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382-006-0167-0

“The third important index is Length of Day (LOD) – a geophysical index that characterizes variation in the earth rotational velocity. Full time series of LOD cover more than 350 years, with the most reliable data obtained in the last 150 years.”

https://www.fao.org/3/y2787e/y2787e03.htm

Earth’s rotation is slowing “due to a transfer of Earth’s rotational momentum to the Moon’s orbital momentum as tidal friction slows the Earth’s rotation.”

In this paper, “Are Changes in the Earth’s Rotation Rate Externally Driven and Do They Affect Climate?”, by Ian R. G. Wilson, the General Science Journal, 2011, “evidence is presented to show that the phases of two of the Earth’s major climate systems, the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), are related to changes in the Earth’s rotation rate.”

In this paper, “On the correlation between air temperature and the core Earth processes: Further investigations using a continuous wavelet analysis” by Stefano Sello, 2011:

https://arxiv.org/pdf/1103.4924.pdf

2. Orbital Energy, Orbital Period, Orbital Spiral, Elliptical Orbits (Eccentricity), Tilt (Obliquity), Wobble (Axial precession) and Polar Motion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_orbital_energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synodic

https://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/6h.html

creates Earth’s seasons;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season

which drives annual changes in Arctic Sea Ice and Antarctic Sea Ice; the freezing and melting of which helps to drive the Thermohaline Circulation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation

and can result in the formation of Polynyas:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya

Earth’s orbit around the Sun, Earth’s tilt, Earth’s wobble and the Moon’s orbit around Earth, Earth’s Rotation, and the gravity of the Moon, Sun and Earth, act in concert to determine the constantly evolving Tidal Force on Earth:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_force

This Tidal Force is influenced by variations in Lunar Orbit;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit_of_the_Moon

as seen in the Lunar Phases;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_phase

Lunar Precession;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_precession

Lunar Node;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_node

Saros cycles;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saros_cycle

and Inex cycles:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inex

The combined cycles of the Saros and Inex Cycles can be visualized here:

https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsaros/image/SEpanoramaGvdB-big.JPG

Keeling and Whorf propose in Geophysics, 2000 “that such abrupt millennial changes, seen in ice and sedimentary core records, were produced in part by well characterized, almost periodic variations in the strength of the global oceanic tide-raising forces caused by resonances in the periodic motions of the earth and moon.”

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18099/

“When perigee, perihelion, and either the new or full moon occur at approximately the same time, considerably increased tidal ranges result.”

https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/restles4.html

Richard Holle argues that “The solar wind inductive effects, drive the lunar declinational movement, which in turn drives the atmospheric declinational tides.”

Nicola Scafetta argues that “The 9.1-year cycle is shown to be likely related to a decadal Soli/Lunar tidal oscillation, while the 10–10.5, 20–21 and 60–62 year cycles are synchronous to solar and heliospheric planetary oscillations.”

https://scienceandpublicpolicy.org/images/stories/papers/reprint/astronomical_harmonics.pdf

https://www.forbes.com/sites/larrybell/2012/01/10/global-warming-no-natural-predictable-climate-change/

https://www.fel.duke.edu/~scafetta/pdf/Scafetta_models_comparison_ATP.pdf

“Past studies have detected a 1500-year climate cycle in various types of Pleistocene geologic or ice deposits.”

https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/E10-050

“The inertial motion of the Sun around the Barycentre, or centre of mass, of the Solar System”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barycentric_coordinates_%28astronomy%29

https://www.orbitsimulator.com/gravity/articles/ssbarycenter.html

https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/barycenter/en/

In Ed Fix’s paper, “The Relationship of Sunspot Cycles to Gravitational Stresses on the Sun”:

https://tallbloke.wordpress.com/2011/07/25/ed-fix-solar-activity-simulation-model-revealed/

https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0507269.pdf

Polar Motion;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_motion

The Chandler Wobble;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_wobble

Over longer time frames changes to Earth’s orbital eccentricity, obliquity (tilt) and precession (wobble), called Croll/Milankovitch cycles;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles

may be responsible for the periods of Glaciation (Ice Ages) that Earth has experienced for the last several million years of its climatic record:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age

“There are three major forms of Milankovitch cycle: Eccentricity, Obliquity, and Precession.”

https://www.azimuthproject.org/azimuth/show/Milankovitch+cycle

https://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7y.html

Gerard Roe argues in support of the Milankovitch framework in this paper:

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2006GL025955

However, Don Easterbrook argues that there are major problems with the Croll/Milankovitch theory:

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2012/01/21/the-ridiculousness-continues-climate-complexity-compiled/#comment-871986

Also of interest, “during a solar eclipse the Moon’s passage overhead blocks out the majority of the Sun’s light, casting a wide swath of the Earth into darkness.”

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2011GL048805

And over very long time frames, “the Moon is spiraling away from Earth at an average rate of 3.8 cm per year”:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_distance_%28astronomy%29

3. Gravitation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitation

The gravity of the Moon, Sun and Earth, Earth’s rotation, Earth’s orbit around the Sun, Earth’s tilt, Earth’s wobble and the Moon’s orbit around Earth act in concert to determine the constantly evolving Tidal Force on Earth:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_force

This tidal force results in Earth’s Ocean Tide;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide

https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/restles4.html

Atmospheric Tide;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_tide

Earth Tide;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_tide

Magma Tide:

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11589-006-0070-3

Earth’s Gravity;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection#Gravitational_or_buoyant_convection

https://visibleearth.nasa.gov/

in concert with Tidal Forces, influence Earth’s Ocean Circulation which influences Oceanic Oscillations including El Niño/La Niña;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation

the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO);

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Decadal_Oscillation

the Atlantic Multi-Decadal Oscillation (AMO);

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Multidecadal_Oscillation

the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)/Indian Ocean Oscillation (IOO);

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Dipole

and can result in the formation of Polynyas:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya

Gravity Waves;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_wave

which may be partially responsible for the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO);

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-biennial_oscillation

“on an air–sea interface are called surface gravity waves or Surface Waves”;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_wave

“while internal gravity waves are called Inertial Waves”:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_waves

Rossby Waves;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossby_wave

Geostrophic Currents;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostrophic_current

and Geostrophic Wind are examples of inertial waves. Inertial waves are also likely to exist in the core of the Earth.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostrophic_wind

Earth’s gravity is the primary driver of Plate Tectonics:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics

which causes most Earthquakes;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake

Volcanoes;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano

and Mountain Formation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_formation

which can create Mountain Jets and influence the creation of Atmospheric Waves:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_jet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_wave

The Slab Pull force;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slab_pull

is a tectonic plate force due to subduction, and the Ridge Push force accounts for 5 to 10% of the overall force:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge_push

Isostasy also exists whereby a “state of gravitational equilibrium between the earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere such that the tectonic plates ‘float’ at an elevation which depends on their thickness and density.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isostasy

Plate Tectonics drive “cycles of ocean basin growth and destruction, known as Wilson cycles,” involving continental rifting;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift

seafloor spreading;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading

subduction;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction

and collision:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_collision

“Climate change on ultra-long time scales (tens of millions of years) are more than likely connected to plate tectonics.” This process is called the Supercontinent Cycle:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent_cycle

Earth’s gravity is responsible for Katabatic Wind:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katabatic_wind

4. Solar Energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy

results in Solar Radiation/Sunlight;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_radiation

which varies based upon 11 and 22 year cycles:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle

Total Solar Irradiance (TSI);

https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/space-weather/solar-irradiance

appears to fluctuate “by approximately 0.1% or about 1.3 Watts per square meter (W/m2) peak-to-trough during the 11-year sunspot cycle”:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_variation

Solar Energy also drives the Hydrological/Water Cycle;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrological_cycle

within the Hydrosphere;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrosphere

as Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) causes evaporation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation

that drives Cloud formation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud

and results in Precipitation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_%28meteorology%29

including Rain;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain

and Snow;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow

including Sublimation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_%28phase_transition%29

Snow sublimation losses, particularly blowing snow sublimation, can be significant in alpine environments:

https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/14/1401/2010/

Precipitation results in the Water Distribution on Earth;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_distribution_on_Earth

creates surface Runoff;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runoff_%28water%29

which result in Rivers and drives Erosion:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion

“The driving force behind atmospheric circulation is solar energy, which heats the atmosphere with different intensities at the equator, the middle latitudes, and the poles.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation

Atmospheric Circulation includes Hadley Cells;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadley_cell

Ferrel Cells;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation#Ferrel_cell

Polar Cells;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_cell

all of which help to create Wind;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind

that influence Surface Currents through Ekman Transport;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekman_transport

https://oceanmotion.org/html/background/ocean-in-motion.htm

and also cause Langmuir circulations:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langmuir_circulation

Solar energy influences Atmospheric Waves;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_wave

including Atmospheric Tides;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_tide

and Atmospheric Pressure:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure

https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/10/24015/2010/

and Atmospheric Escape;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_escape

which “is the loss of planetary atmospheric gases to outer space”:

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-planets-lose-their-atmospheres/

Solar energy drives the Brewer-Dobson Circulation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewer-Dobson_circulation

which influences Polar Vortices:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_vortex

https://wattsupwiththat.com/reference-pages/polar-vortex/

Solar variability may also influence the Polar Night Jets:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_stream#Polar_night_jet

Solar Ultraviolet (UV) radiation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet

appears to vary by approximately 10% during the solar cycle and has been hypothesized to influence Earth’s climate:

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2011/04/05/courtillot-on-the-solar-uv-climate-connection/

however Leif Svalgaard argues that the energy in the EUV/UV band is very small compared to total solar irradiation, and that a larger solar cycle variation of EUV does not make any significant difference in the energy budget:

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2011/04/05/courtillot-on-the-solar-uv-climate-connection/#comment-636477

Additionally “the thermosphere intercepts extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photons from the sun before they can reach the ground.” In 2008-2009 “A Puzzling Collapse of Earth’s Upper Atmosphere” occurred when “high above Earth’s surface where the atmosphere meets space, a rarefied layer of gas called ‘the thermosphere’ recently collapsed and now is rebounding again.”

https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/

Infrared Radiation;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared

Henrik Svensmark believes that the Solar Wind,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind

“a wave of charged particles from the sun, interacts with cosmic rays as they approach Earth. How many cosmic rays get through the solar wind determines how many clouds form, he suggests. The amount of cloud cover then determines how hot or cold the planet is.”

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2009/08/04/a-link-between-the-sun-cosmic-rays-aerosols-and-liquid-water-clouds-appears-to-exist-on-a-global-scale/

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2011/08/24/breaking-news-cern-experiment-confirms-cosmic-rays-influence-climate-change/

Henrik Svensmark’s Papers: https://www.space.dtu.dk/english/research/solar-terrestrial-physics

Several studies have found correlations between solar cycles, cosmic rays and agricultural output:

https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/papers/0312/0312244.pdf

https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010cosp…38.4244P

Solar – Coronal Holes;

https://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/coronalholes.shtml

Solar – Solar Energetic Particles (SEP);

https://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SEP.shtml

Solar – Coronal Mass Ejection;

https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Cluster

Sun Erupts to Life – Huge CME on 13 April 2010 (YouTube)

Solar Magnetosphere Breach; Solar Polar Field Reversal;

https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast15feb_1

Solar Sector Boundary;

https://science.nasa.gov/heliophysics/

Grand Minimum; Leif Svalgaard says: “If L&P are correct and sunspots become effectively invisible, it might mean another Grand Minimum lasting perhaps 50 years. During this time the solar cycle is still operating, cosmic rays are still modulated, and the solar wind is still buffeting the Earth. It will lead to a cooling of a couple of tenths of a degree.”

Solar Influences on Climate:

https://www.leif.org/EOS/2009RG000282.pdf

Statistical issues about solar–climate relations:

https://www.leif.org/EOS/Yiou-565-2010.pdf

5. Geothermal Energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energy

“is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Earth’s geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).”

“The Earth’s internal thermal energy flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 terawatts (TW), and is replenished by radioactive decay of minerals at a rate of 30 TW.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient

Geothermal Heat Flows;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#Heat_flow

https://www.smu.edu/dedman/research/institutes-and-centers/geothermal-lab

Geothermal Heat also flows through Hydrothermal Vents;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent

which can be a factor in Hydrothermal Circulations:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation

as well as Hot Springs:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_spring

Geothermal Energy can have major influence on Earth’s climate when released by Volcanoes, generally found where tectonic plates are diverging;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergent_boundary

or converging;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_boundary

however, “intraplate volcanism has also been postulated to be caused by mantle plumes”:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_plume

These so-called “hotspots”;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotspot_%28geology%29

Volcanoes’ influence on Earth’s climate;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_winter

include the infamous Year Without a Summer;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer

which was partially caused by the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1815_eruption_of_Mount_Tambora

Volcanic Ash;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_ash

Tephra;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tephra

“The greatest volcanic impact upon the earth’s short term weather patterns is caused by sulfur dioxide gas;”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide

which is converted to Sulfuric Acid:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid

https://volcanology.geol.ucsb.edu/gas.htm

Volcanoes and Yellowstone geothermal processes:

https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/yellowstone-frequently-asked-questions

Volcanic water vapor in the stratosphere:

https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016%3C3525%3AAGSOVE%3E2.0.CO%3B2

“Stratospheric water vapor concentrations decreased by about 10% after the year 2000. Here we show that this acted to slow the rate of increase in global surface temperature over 2000–2009 by about 25% compared to that which would have occurred due only to carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.”

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1181931

RSS Temperature Lower Stratosphere (TLS) – Brightness Temperature Anomaly – 1979 to Present, punctuated by warming events associated with the eruptions of El Chichon (1982) and Mt Pinatubo (1991):

→ RSS MSU/AMSU Time Series Browser (select Channel TLS v4.0)

The eruptions of El Chichon and Mt Pinatubo are readily apparent in the Apparent Atmospheric Transmission of Solar Radiation at Mauna Loa, Hawaii:

https://gml.noaa.gov/webdata/grad/mloapt/mlo_transmission.gif

6. Outer Space/Cosmic/Galactic Effects

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy

including Asteroids;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid

Meteorites;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite

and Comets;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet

can all significantly impact Earth’s climate upon impact if they are large enough.

It has also been hypothesized that small comets impact Earth at a high rate, adding water to the atmosphere. “Debate over the source of the Earth’s water has been raging for decades” with some arguing comets were responsible for Earth’s oceans, and others arguing ice asteroids were the likely source.

It has been hypothesized that Galactic Cosmic Rays;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_cosmic_ray

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray

modulated by Solar Wind, may influence cloud formation on Earth:

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2009/08/04/a-link-between-the-sun-cosmic-rays-aerosols-and-liquid-water-clouds-appears-to-exist-on-a-global-scale/

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2011/08/24/breaking-news-cern-experiment-confirms-cosmic-rays-influence-climate-change/

A Forbush decrease is a rapid decrease in the observed galactic cosmic ray intensity following a coronal mass ejection (CME):

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbush_decrease

Studies of Forbush decreases and cloud formation:

https://www.astrophys-space-sci-trans.net/7/315/2011/astra-7-315-2011.html

“Close passages of coronal mass ejections from the sun are signaled at the Earth’s surface by Forbush decreases in cosmic ray counts. We find that low clouds contain less liquid water following Forbush decreases.”

CERN CLOUD experiment results on ion-induced nucleation:

https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10343

Also, “the density of cosmic ray sources in the galaxy is not uniform. In fact, it is concentrated in the galactic spiral arms.” This connection between spiral arm crossings and ice ages is explored here:

https://www.sciencebits.com/ice-ages

Galactic Magnetic Fields;

https://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Galactic_magnetic_fields

result in the Galactic Tide;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_tide

which may influence the hypothesized Oort cloud:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_Cloud

Also Cosmic Dust;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_dust

“Depending on their size and overall number, cosmic dust and other particles in the atmosphere have the potential to change Earth’s climate. They can reflect sunlight, which cools the Earth, absorb sunlight, which warms the atmosphere, and act as a blanket for the planet.”

https://www.space.com/1484-source-cosmic-dust.html

All of the Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs);

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst

that “astronomers have recorded so far have come from distant galaxies and have been harmless to Earth, but if one occurred within our galaxy and were aimed straight at us, the effects could be devastating.”

7. Earth’s Magnetic Field

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field

is primarily responsible for the Earthly behaviors of the Magnetosphere;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetosphere

with certain secular variations in Earth’s magnetic field originating from ocean flow/circulation:

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1367-2630/11/6/063015

though Leif Svalgaard notes that these are minor variations, as the magnetic field originating from ocean flow/circulation “is 1000 times smaller than the main field generated in the core.”

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2011/06/30/earths-climate-system-is-ridiculously-complex-with-draft-link-tutorial/#comment-707971

Earth Core Changes appear “to be generated in the Earth’s core by a dynamo process.” These core changes influence the Magnetosphere, including movement of the Geomagnetic Poles:

https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/wandering-geomagnetic-poles

According to a 2009 Danish study “Is there a link between Earth’s magnetic field and low-latitude precipitation?” by Knudsen and Riisager, Geology, 2009:

https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/37/1/71/3523

“Intriguingly, we observe a relatively good correlation between the high-resolution speleothem δ18O records and the dipole moment, suggesting that Earth’s magnetic field to some degree influenced low-latitude precipitation in the past.”

“Oxygen is constantly leaking out of Earth’s atmosphere and into space. ESA’s Cluster satellites have discovered the physical mechanism that is driving the escape — Earth’s own magnetic field is accelerating the oxygen away.”

https://sci.esa.int/web/cluster

8. Atmospheric Composition

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth

Nitrogen (N2) represents approximately 780,840 ppmv or 78.084% of Earth’s Atmosphere;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen

Oxygen (O2) represents approximately 209,460 ppmv or 20.946%;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen

Argon (Ar) represents approximately 9,340 ppmv or 0.9340%;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) represents approximately 420+ ppmv (currently rising);

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide

contributes to the Greenhouse Effect;

https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/greenhouse-effect

and influences the rate of Plant Growth. “Of all the carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted into the atmosphere, one quarter is taken up by land plants, another quarter by the oceans.”

https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2002/11/the-ocean-carbon-cycle.html

Roy Spencer argues that during a warm El Niño year, more CO2 is released by the ocean into the atmosphere:

https://www.drroyspencer.com/2009/05/global-warming-causing-carbon-dioxide-increases-a-simple-model/

However, Steve Fitzpatrick argues that the CO2 released by human activities, combined with slow ocean absorption/neutralization, is broadly consistent with the measured historical trend in atmospheric CO2:

https://wattsupwiththat.com/2009/05/22/a-look-at-human-co2-emissions-vs-ocean-absorption/

Neon (Ne) represents approximately 18.18 ppmv;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon

Helium (He) represents approximately 5.24 ppmv;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium

Krypton (Kr) represents approximately 1.14 ppmv;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krypton

Methane (CH4) represents approximately 1.9 ppmv (currently rising);

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane

contributes to the Greenhouse Effect. “Natural sources of CH4 include fires, geologic processes, and bacteria that produce CH4 in a variety of settings.”

https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases

The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clathrate_gun_hypothesis

“is the popular name given to the hypothesis that rises in sea temperatures (and/or falls in sea level) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and permafrost.” Evidence from submarine sediment failures in the North Atlantic:

https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/32/1/53/

Hydrogen (H2) represents approximately 0.55 ppmv;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen

Nitrous Oxide (N2O) represents approximately 0.33 ppmv and contributes to the Greenhouse Effect;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxide

Ozone (O3) represents approximately 0.0 to 0.07 ppmv and contributes to the Greenhouse Effect;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone#Ozone_as_a_greenhouse_gas

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) represents approximately 0.02 ppmv;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide

Iodine (I2) represents approximately 0.01 ppmv;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine

Ammonia (NH3) represents a trace amount of Earth’s Atmosphere:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia

Water vapor (H2O) represents approximately 0.40% over the full atmosphere, typically 1%–4% at surface:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vapor

“Water Vapor accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36% and 66% for clear sky conditions and between 66% and 85% when including clouds.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#Role_of_water_vapor

Aerosols;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol

“act as cloud condensation nuclei, they alter albedo (both directly and indirectly via clouds) and hence Earth’s radiation budget, and they serve as catalysts of or sites for atmospheric chemistry reactions.”